The Most Difficult Concepts in Human Anatomy and Techniques to Master Them

by Robert Tallitsch, PhD | July 28, 2026

As was mentioned in a previous blog “The Importance of Understanding Anatomical Relationships," students of human anatomy need to know from the first day of class that anatomy is a complex and difficult subject.

Learning human anatomy is more than just knowing “what is it and where is it?” The successful mastery of human anatomy requires a balance between memorization, understanding, and visualization. Deeper approaches to learning anatomy—meaning attempts to understand the subject matter instead of just memorizing names and locations—correlate strongly with the ability to understand all of the aspects of the human body—both simple and difficult.

During my 43 years of college teaching I taught Human Anatomy, Advanced Anatomical Dissection, Neuroanatomy, and Histology. I often asked my students what they viewed as the most difficult concept(s) in the course. The responses were personal and as varied as the students, but the areas listed below were mentioned more than others:

Origins, insertions, actions, and innervations of the muscles of the forearm and hand

Anatomy of the autonomic nervous system

Brain stem anatomy

Identifying the various regions of the vertebral column

Pelvic anatomy

Anatomy of the head and neck

Each student had their individual reasons as to why a particular area of the human body was the most difficult. Here are just a few of the reasons mentioned:

The emotional responses that a particular region of the body produced. For example, one student stated that dissecting the hand produced emotions as to what vocation the specimen practiced during his/her/their lifetime, as well as what objects or other individuals the donor touched and held with their hands.

Numerous students referenced the high volume of material and the difficulty in understanding the 3-dimensional relationships of the head and neck or pelvic area.

It is difficult to understand why a particular muscle produced the actions it did until one learns how to utilize the action lines at various joints of the upper and lower limbs.

The locations and functions of brain stem nuclei are quite complex and are easily confused.

SoTL (Study of Teaching and Learning) research regarding which topics are the most difficult to first-time anatomy learners has not produced a consensus as to which one specific concept or region of human anatomy is the most difficult to learn and understand. Indeed, the SoTL results are almost as diverse as were my students’ responses.

That said, there is considerable research regarding how students can make those difficult areas of human anatomy easier to learn. The SoTL literature is full of insights as to what students should and shouldn’t do when studying human anatomy.

First, it is important for an anatomy student to understand that “learning anatomy” is more than just knowing “what is it and where it is”. To truly understand human anatomy one must know how to apply anatomical knowledge in order to solve complex clinical problems. Developing this level of understanding is an on-going process. Learning anatomy does not stop upon completion of one’s first anatomy class. Anatomy students need to know that anatomical education will continue in numerous settings within undergraduate, graduate and professional schooling, and beyond. The anatomy student that views the learning of anatomy as a longitudinal skill will ultimately know and understand more than the anatomy student that views learning anatomy as a “once-and-done” topic.

So, with that in mind, let’s talk about some of the worst and best things to do when trying to learn the most difficult concepts in human anatomy.

A list of what doesn’t work is probably the easiest way to start this discussion. As numerous SoTL sources state, hard work alone won’t bring success in learning anatomy. What will bring success is working hard in the correct way! Below are just some of the study habits that do not maximize a student’s chances for truly learning anatomy.

Highlighting texts, rereading lecture notes, and reviewing laboratory and/or lecture material for a few nights before an examination.

Focusing only on memorization and not trying to understand the material.

Only using visual aids (diagrams, models, charts) when studying.

Not reviewing material frequently and not varying one’s methodology for reviewing the material. Flashcards work as an excellent review methodology for some material, while drawing a structure or explaining a concept to a classmate works better for other material.

SoTL literature points to at least nine evidence-based studying techniques that increase deep learning and the chances of a high-level of success in a human anatomy course:

Utilizing active learning techniques versus passive learning techniques. Active learning results from one trying to remember and reconstruct information previously encountered in class without looking at lecture notes or highlighted text, and trying to make mental connections between facts “A” and “B” and “C”. An example of active learning would be closing your textbook after studying the anatomy and innervations of the brachial plexus and then taking out a pencil or pen and writing down what you remember about that topic in the text, and/or asking yourself questions (or having someone else ask you questions) about what you just read and answering them without looking in the text.

Active learning techniques also involve teaching someone else a concept, taking a practice test without consulting one’s lecture/laboratory notes or the textbook, or utilizing flashcards to prompt recall of a concept or a keyword without checking.
The concept of “Spaced Repetition” is a learning technique involving the use of flashcards. Here the student reviews newly introduced material and more difficult material frequently, while older and less difficult information is reviewed less frequently.
The concept of “Elaboration” is a learning technique where students explain a new concept to another student in their own words and relate it to their everyday experiences. This action builds a learning bridge between old and new knowledge.
Work with a study partner and teach an anatomical concept to that individual in the simplest terms possible. This process, termed the “Feynman Technique”, has been shown to be very effective in the learning process, both for the “teacher” and the “student” in this process.

Here is an example of the Feynman Technique that I utilized with my students when they were studying the three relationships an abdominal organ may have with the peritoneum: intraperitoneal, retroperitoneal, and extraperitoneal:

Your roommate has an anatomy exam tomorrow morning and, when he goes to bed, he sets his alarm for 5 a.m. He also says that he sleeps better with an open window, even though it is quite cool outside. When he goes to bed he grabs the blanket and rolls such that he is covered on all sides by the blanket. Your roommate is now intraperitoneal (covered on all sides by the peritoneum) with respect to the blanket. However, in the night he becomes too warm and unrolls himself so that he is only covered on his anterior side by the blanket. He is now retroperitoneal to the blanket (behind the peritoneum). Early the next morning your roommate’s alarm has been going off for 30 minutes and he has yet to get up. Out of frustration you get up and pull off the blanket and throw it on the floor. Your roommate is now extraperitoneal, in that he had a relationship with the peritoneum (blanket) at one time (during development) but now has lost it.
The concept of “Interleaving” requires students to mix up topics within the same subject when studying. With this concept a student studying the origins, insertions, and actions of limb musculature would intermix the review of muscles of the forearm, leg, arm, thigh, shoulder, and hip muscles rather than covering one segment of the body (shoulder) entirely before moving on to the next segment of the body (arm). This study pattern helps the student understand the concepts of limb musculature and also understand the commonalities of limb musculature.
The concept of “Dual Coding” involves the simultaneous studying of verbal information with visual information. An example would be explaining an anatomical concept to another student while simultaneously showing what is being discussed in a video, textbook illustration, or on an anatomical donor (cadaver).
Form study groups with individuals that have a variety of levels of understanding of the material at hand. Being in a group where everyone equally understands the subject matter results in less active learning simply because there is less interaction and less peer-to-peer learning and conversation.
Study in “chunks”. This study technique helps eliminate or reduce the feeling of being overwhelmed when studying difficult material. For example, preparing to study an entire region of the body can be overwhelming. Breaking that region down into a series of manageable chunks, such as studying the anatomy, vasculature, and innervation of the stomach is more manageable and less overwhelming than trying to study the anatomy, vasculature, and innervation of the entire gastrointestinal system at once.
Ask for help. If something doesn’t make sense, or one way of studying isn’t working for you, ask for help. The professor is there to help you. Ask for a tutor, ask for suggestions and guidance from the professor or fellow students. Asking for help when one needs it is not a weakness—asking for help can clarify a concept and provide additional support when it is needed.

Professors of anatomy must also do everything they can to assist their students in their quest for mastering difficult concepts in human anatomy. Here are four methodologies that the SoTL literature demonstrates a faculty member may use that have positive impacts on deep learning by the students:

Assist students in how to visualize anatomical concepts in three dimensions. Having a professor teach students such that they understand and utilize anatomical relationships dramatically simplifies anatomical concepts. Studying anatomy in only two dimensions limits one’s complete understanding of the human body, simply because all anatomical structures are three-dimensional, and every structure has a relationship with many other structures.

Some of my favorite questions for students, be it in lecture or lab, was to name or point to a structure and ask one or more of the following questions:
1. What structure lies medial or lateral to the one I named or am pointing to?
2. What structure lies deep to the one I named or am pointing to?
3. What route do the nerves that innervate this structure take to get from the central nervous system to this structure?
Teach such that students learn how to apply anatomical information in order to solve complex problems. All too often instructors of introductory human anatomy courses fall into the habit of only teaching “what is it and where is it?” in their courses. This teaching methodology forces students to learn how to understand anatomical concepts on their own, which reduces the students’ ability to understand and utilize the subject matter in order to solve complex problems. In addition, too many instructors teach with an exam-driven curriculum, which results in superficial learning rather than the understanding of concepts and the ability to apply those concepts in the solving of clinical problems, which are the main characteristics of deep learning. The utilization of Problem-Based Learning, or the utilization of clinical information in the form of x-rays or other scanning techniques, helps students progress from superficial to deep learning. Instructors must shift toward deep learning by prioritizing active, inquiry-driven teaching methods, which enables students to apply the information they have learned rather than simply regurgitating memorized course material.
Develop a group of tutors that have excellent interpersonal relationship skills and study skills such that they would be patient working with a student that requires extra help in the class. These tutors need to have, and regularly use, exceptional study skills such that they can encourage a struggling student to try different study methodologies in order to increase the student’s potential for success within the class.
SoTL research has clearly demonstrated that, for a teacher to be truly effective in and out of the classroom, the teacher must demonstrate authenticity and vulnerability in the classroom. It’s ok to say that you encountered difficulty in learning anatomy (provided it is true). By demonstrating this vulnerability and authenticity the student realizes they he/she/they are not alone in this feeling, and that they can succeed even while feeling this at the beginning of the course. The instructor must authentically demonstrate that he/she/they cares about the students and that he/she/they truly believes that the students can and will succeed in the classroom.

Yes, students of human anatomy need to know from the first day of class that anatomy is a complex and difficult subject, and that there is a lot of information to know. But students also need to understand how excellent studying and test-taking techniques will increase their chances for succeed in this class. Faculty members also need to know that excellent teaching techniques and the demonstration of true authenticity and vulnerability on their part will make this process significantly less painful for their students.